🌐 Chapter 09 · Topic 02 · International Conventions

Climate Conventions

UNFCCC (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), Copenhagen Accord (2009), Paris Agreement (2015), key COP meetings, India’s NDC and Panchamrit — complete UPSC & PSC notes.

🌍 UNFCCC (1992)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change — adopted at Earth Summit, Rio, 1992; entered into force 1994
197 parties (near-universal); Secretariat: Bonn, Germany
Objective: stabilise GHG concentrations to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system
Established CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities) principle
Divided countries into: Annex I (developed + economies in transition), Annex II (developed; must provide finance), Non-Annex I (developing; India, China, etc.)
Annual Conference of Parties (COP) meetings

📜 Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Adopted at COP3, Kyoto, Japan, 1997; entered into force 2005
First legally binding emission reduction targets — for Annex I countries only
First commitment period: 2008–2012 — average 5.2% reduction below 1990 levels
Second commitment period: 2013–2020 (Doha Amendment) — 18% reduction
USA never ratified; Canada withdrew 2011; developing countries (India, China) had no binding targets
Three flexibility mechanisms: CDM, Joint Implementation (JI), Emissions Trading (ET)

🌿 Paris Agreement (2015)

Adopted at COP21, Paris, December 2015; entered into force 4 November 2016
Temperature goal: limit warming to well below 2°C; aim for 1.5°C
NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) — each country sets own targets; updated every 5 years
Applies to all countries (unlike Kyoto which only covered developed countries)
Finance: developed countries to mobilise $100 billion/year for developing countries
Net zero emissions in the second half of the 21st century
USA withdrew (Trump, 2017); rejoined (Biden, 2021)

⭐ Key COP Meetings:
COP1 (1995, Berlin) = Berlin Mandate
COP3 (1997, Kyoto) = Kyoto Protocol
COP13 (2007, Bali) = Bali Action Plan
COP15 (2009, Copenhagen) = Copenhagen Accord (non-binding)
COP17 (2011, Durban) = Durban Platform
COP21 (2015, Paris) = Paris Agreement
COP26 (2021, Glasgow) = Glasgow Climate Pact; India’s Panchamrit; coal phase-down
COP27 (2022, Sharm el-Sheikh) = Loss & Damage Fund
COP28 (2023, Dubai) = First Global Stocktake; transition from fossil fuels

🇮🇳 India’s Climate Commitments

India’s Panchamrit (COP26, 2021): 500 GW renewable by 2030; 50% non-fossil electricity by 2030; 45% emissions intensity reduction by 2030; 2.5–3 billion tonnes carbon sink by 2030; net zero by 2070
India is a Non-Annex I country — no binding targets under Kyoto; voluntary NDC under Paris
India’s updated NDC (2022): 45% emissions intensity reduction; 50% non-fossil electricity by 2030
India launched International Solar Alliance (ISA) with France at COP21 — 120+ members; HQ: Gurugram, India
CDRI (Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure) — launched by India at COP26

📌 India’s Position in Climate Negotiations: India consistently advocates for: (1) CBDR — developed countries must take greater responsibility; (2) Climate finance — $100 billion/year commitment must be met; (3) Technology transfer — developing countries need clean technology; (4) Equity — per capita emissions of India (1.9 tCO₂/year) are far below USA (14.4) and global average (4.7); (5) Right to development — India needs economic growth to lift millions out of poverty.

✅ Revision Checklist — Climate Conventions

✅ UNFCCC = 1992, Rio = 197 parties = Bonn secretariat = CBDR
✅ Annex I = developed countries; Non-Annex I = developing (India, China)
✅ Kyoto Protocol = COP3, 1997 = binding targets for Annex I only
✅ Kyoto first commitment period = 2008–2012 = 5.2% reduction
✅ CDM = developed country funds project in developing country = CERs
✅ USA never ratified Kyoto; Canada withdrew 2011
✅ Paris Agreement = COP21, 2015 = well below 2°C; aim 1.5°C = all countries
✅ NDCs = updated every 5 years = ratchet mechanism
✅ Paris Agreement entered into force = 4 November 2016
✅ COP26 Glasgow (2021) = India’s Panchamrit = coal phase-down
✅ COP27 (2022) = Loss & Damage Fund established
✅ COP28 Dubai (2023) = First Global Stocktake = transition from fossil fuels
✅ India’s net zero = 2070; 500 GW renewable by 2030
✅ ISA = International Solar Alliance = India + France = COP21 = HQ Gurugram