Practice Questions on AP History

Kubja Vishnuvardhana (Kubja meaning ‘hump-backed’) founded the Eastern Chalukya line. He was the younger brother of Pulakesin II of the Western Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II appointed him as Viceroy of the newly acquired territories in the Eastern Deccan. On the death of Pulakesin II in 641 A.D. and the eclipse of the Western Chalukyan power, Vishnuvardhana proclaimed his independence and founded the dynasty. He ruled from 624 A.D. to 641 A.D. and assumed the title ‘Vishamasiddhi’ (conqueror of difficulties).

The original capital of the Eastern Chalukyas was Vengi, which is identified with the modern town of Pedavegi (or Peddavegi). This historical site is located near Eluru in the West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh.

Kubja Vishnuvardhana (reigned c. 624–641 AD) was the brother of the Badami Chalukya king Pulakeshin II and established the Eastern Chalukya kingdom in the Vengi region. The title Vishamasiddhi (also spelled Visamasiddhi or Vishama-siddhi) directly translates to “conqueror of difficulties” or “achieving success in difficult times”.

The fall of Pulakesin II and the subsequent independence of the Eastern Chalukyas is associated with the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (also known as Mahamalla).

Narasimhavarman I defeated and likely killed Pulakesin II, and he is famous for invading the Chalukyan territory, capturing their capital Vatapi (modern-day Badami) in approximately 642–643 CE. After destroying the city, he assumed the title of Vatapikonda (“Conqueror of Vatapi”).

The five centuries of Eastern Chalukyan rule over Vengi saw not merely the consolidation of the region into a unified whole, but also the efflorescence of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art.

• Birth of Telugu Literature: Under the patronage of King Rajaraja Narendra, the court poet Nannaya Bhattaraka (the Adi Kavi) began the translation of the Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu, known as the Andhra Mahabharatam. This work established the foundation for classical Telugu literature and shaped the cultural identity of the Andhra people.

Pallava king Mahendravarman I was defeated by the Chalukya king  Pulakeshin II around 618–619 CE, in the Battle of Pullalur. This defeat, in which Mahendravarman I had to cede Northern provinces, led his son Narasimhavarman I to later invade and capture the Chalukyan capital, Badami (Vatapi), in 642 CE, killing Pulakesin II.

The first Telugu literary work is generally considered to be the Andhra Mahabharatam (or Andhra Mahābhāratamu), an epic transcreation of the Sanskrit Mahabharata. It was composed starting in the 11th century AD.

This work was commissioned under the Eastern Chalukyan ruler Raja Raja Narendra (reigned c. 1019–1061 CE),  by Nannaya Bhattaraka. He was ably assisted by Narayana Bhatta.

Nannaya completed the first two chapters (Adi and Sabha Parvas) and part of the third chapter (Aranya Parva) of the Andhra Mahabharatam.

Chalukya Bhima I (892-921 A.D.) constructed the famous Draksharama temple and the Chalukya Bhimavaram (Samalkot) temple. These are two of the Pancharama shrines — the five famous Shiva temples of coastal Andhra. Bhima I is thus credited with constructing two of the most important religious monuments of Andhra Pradesh.

The Pancharamas — Amaravati, Draksharama, Bhimavaram (Palakollanu), Samalkot and Kumararama (Chebrolu) — became great Shaiva pilgrimage centres during the Eastern Chalukyan period.

The Chipurupalli grant, issued in the 18th year of Kubja Vishnuvardhana (c. 641 A.D.), is significant as it documents his transition from a subordinate viceroy under the Badami Chalukyas to an independent ruler of the Vengi region, marking the formal establishment of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

The grant indicates that Vishnuvardhana was assuming the title of “Maharaja” and acting as an independent sovereign in the Vengi region following the instability of the Badami Chalukya kingdom.

The Maruturu grant (or Maruthuru grant) of Pulakesin II, issued in his 8th regnal year (c. 617–618 CE), is significant for recording the occupation of Pishtapura (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh) and for providing evidence of the expansion of Chalukyan power into the eastern Deccan.

The grant records the victory of Pulakesin II over the Vishnukundina dynasty and the capture of their capital, Pishtapura.

Dr. N. Venkataramanayya, B.V. Krishnarao, and Dr. N. Ramesan generally accepted 624 A.D. as the starting point of the Eastern Chalukyan chronology, marking the establishment of the kingdom by Kubja Vishnuvardhana I. 

While 615 A.D. or 616 A.D. is cited as the time Kubja Vishnuvardhana was appointed as the Viceroy of Vengi by his brother Pulakeshin II, the start of the independent Eastern Chalukya dynasty (and therefore the, formal chronological starting point) is established in 624 A.D.

B.V. Krishnarao, in particular, authored History of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, 610-1210 A.D., but 624 A.D. is the widely accepted academic date for the beginning of the sovereign rule

During the reign of Vijayaditya I (755-772 A.D.), the ninth king of the Eastern Chalukyas, a major political revolution occurred in Western Deccan — the Chalukyas of Vatapi lost their dominion and were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga around 753 A.D. This disappearance of the friendly Western Chalukyan house and the emergence of the Rashtrakuta power upset the equilibrium of the Southern Deccan. Vengi, which had enjoyed comparative peace since its conquest under Pulakesin II, was now drawn into a vortex of inter-dynastic struggle between the Eastern Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.

Gunaga Vijayaditya (849-892 A.D.) had a reign full of important events:

• Independence from Rashtrakutas: Initially an ally of Amoghavarsha I, he declared independence after his death and successfully pursued the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II up to central India.
• Expeditions against Boya-Kottamas: His general, Pandaranga, won victories against the sturdy warriors, the Boya-Kottamas, and conquered Nellore.
• Patronage of Arts and Temples: He constructed 108 Shiva temples, and his reign saw the rise of the early Telugu script and early Telugu literature through his army chief, Pandaranga.
• Administrative Efficiency: He stabilized the Vengi kingdom after a period of external domination and maintained friendly relations with neighboring powers like the Rashtrakutas for a significant period before confronting them.
• Patronage of Jainism: He supported Jainism, which was popular among the common people of the time

Vijayaditya II (808–847 A.D.), an Eastern Chalukya king of Vengi, is famous for fighting 108 battles and constructing 108 Siva temples.

• Battles: He fought 108 battles against the Gangas and Rattas (Rashtrakutas) over a period of 12 years to secure his kingdom.
• Temples: To commemorate these victories, he is credited with constructing 108 large Siva temples, known as Narendraeswara or Narendra Mrigeswara temples, in the Vengi region of Andhra Pradesh.

Jata Choda Bhima was the Telugu Choda chief of Pedakallu in modern Kurnool district. He slew Danamava in battle in 973 A.D. and took possession of Vengi. For the first time in the long history of Vengi Chalukya rule, an interregnum was recorded.

Jata Choda Bhima ruled Vengi for 27 years (972-1000 A.D.) and at the zenith of his glory exercised authority over the entire coastal region from Mahendragiri to Kanchi and from the Bay of Bengal to the frontiers of Karnataka.

Rajaraja Chola I intervened in the affairs of the Vengi kingdom to help the sons of Dānārnava (an Eastern Chalukya king) reclaim their throne.

The two sons of Dānārnava, named Śaktivarman I and Vimalāditya, had been exiled from their kingdom after Jata Choda Bhima of the Telugu Cholas seized the throne of Vengi, leading to a period of anarchy. Rajaraja I defeated Jata Choda Bhima and installed Saktivarman I on the Vengi throne, making Vengi a subordinate ally of the Chola Empire.

To solidify this alliance, Rajaraja I arranged the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to Vimalāditya, the younger son of Dānārnava, ensuring long-term Chola influence over the Vengi throne.

After Rajaraja Chola I established Saktivarma I (1000-1011 A.D.) on the Vengi throne by killing Jata Choda Bhima, Vengi ceased to be an independent kingdom and became a protectorate of the Chola empire. This Eastern Chalukyan alliance with the Chola monarch had far-reaching consequences — it deprived the rulers of Vengi much of their individuality and autonomy. Subsequently, Vengi became the arena of a long war between the Cholas and the Kalyani Chalukyas that lasted for nearly 135 years.

Rajaraja Narendra (1018–1061 A.D.), an Eastern Chalukya king, was reinstated on the Vengi throne in 1021–1022 A.D. by the Chola emperor Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044 A.D.). Rajendra I defeated the Western Chalukyas and their ally Vijayaditya, who had occupied Vengi, ensuring Rajaraja Narendra’s installation.

Rajaraja Narendra’s reign is notable for the promotion of Telugu literature, including the commissioning of the Mahabharata translation by Nannaya.

Nannaya Bhatta (c. 11th century) was a revered Telugu scholar and court poet to the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra, known as the Adi Kavi (First Poet) of Telugu literature. He initiated the translation of the Mahabharata from Sanskrit into Telugu—known as Andhra Mahabharatam—to make the epic accessible, establish a distinct literary tradition.

• Aadi Kavi (First Poet): He is credited with writing the first available literature in Telugu, establishing the Champu style (mixed poetry and prose).
• The Trinity: He is the first of the Kavithrayam (Trinity of Poets), which includes Nannaya, Tikkana, and Yerrapragada, who completed the translation over several centuries.
• Grammarian: He is believed to have authored Andhra Sabda Chintamani the first treatise on Telugu grammar, establishing standards for the language.

The dynasty that replaced the Rashtrakutas in the Western Deccan around 973 A.D. was the Western Chalukya dynasty (also known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani or Later Chalukyas).

• Founder: The dynasty was established by Tailapa II (or Taila II), a feudatory of the last Rashtrakuta king, Karka II.
• Establishment: Tailapa II overthrew Karka II in 973 A.D., ending the Rashtrakuta rule and resurrecting the imperial Chalukya lineage.
• Significance & Impact on Politics: The rise of the Western Chalukyas, with their capital at Manyakheta (later Kalyani), fundamentally altered the political landscape. They initiated long-standing conflicts with the Eastern Chalukyas (Chalukyas of Vengi) and the Chola dynasty, as the Eastern Chalukyas aligned with the Cholas, while the Western Chalukyas tried to establish dominance over Vengi (coastal Andhra).

The battle at Vingavalli, which took place during the reign of the Eastern Chalukya king Gunaga Vijayaditya III (c. 849–892 CE), resulted in a significant victory for the Rashtrakuta emperor Amoghavarsha I.

• Rashtrakuta Overlordship: Amoghavarsha I defeated the Vengi Chalukyas, forcing Gunaga Vijayaditya III to temporarily acknowledge Rashtrakuta suzerainty and pay tribute, ending a period of rebellion.

The Golingeswara temple at Bikkavolu, located in the East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, was constructed by the Eastern Chalukyan ruler Gunaga Vijayaditya II (also known as Vijayaditya III), who ruled from 849–892 CE. It is a 9th-century temple built in the Dravidian style, known for its intricate carvings.

It is part of a group of six temples from the Eastern Chalukya era found in Bikkavolu.

The Pancharama shrines are five sacred Shiva temples in coastal Andhra Pradesh,  believed to be formed from fragments of a single Lingam. They are:

(1) Amaravati (Amareswara temple, Guntur district);

(2) Draksharama (Bhimeswara temple, East Godavari district);

(3) Bhimavaram/Palakollu (Somasekharaswami temple, West Godavari district);

(4) Samalkot (Kumararama Bhimeswara temple, East Godavari district);

(5) Chebrolu (Kumararama/Mahasena temple, Guntur district).

Vishnuvardhana IV (772-808 A.D.) gave his daughter Seelamahadevi in marriage to Dhruva (the Rashtrakuta king). This cemented the relationship between the two kingdoms, and the royal houses of Vengi and Malkhed were thus for the first time matrimonially allied in history. As a consequence, peace was restored between the two kingdoms till the death of Vishnuvardhana IV in 806 A.D. The daughter Seelamahadevi became the mother of Gunaga Vijayaditya (who was the eldest son of Kali Vishnuvardhana born of the Rashtrakuta princess Silamahadevi). This matrimonial connection tied the fates of both dynasties.

Yuan Chwang (Hieun Tsang), who travelled in the Andhra country after the establishment of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom, noted that the people were of a violent character, were of a dark complexion, and were fond of arts. He noticed some twenty or more Buddhist aramas in which more than three thousand Sramanas lived. He spent some time in Amaravati and studied Mahasanghika Abhidamma with the help of two Sramanas. This observation is important as it shows that Buddhism, while declining, still had a significant presence in early Eastern Chalukyan Andhra.

Rashtrakuta Krishna III invaded Vengi in 955 A.D. to back Danarnava, the elder brother of Amma II, against him. Unable to withstand the advancing Rashtrakuta forces, Amma II abandoned the kingdom and saved himself by timely flight to Kalinga. Krishna III then entrusted the government of Vengi to Danarnava. Thus once again Vengi was brought within the fold of Rashtrakuta hegemony. However, Danamava was later defeated and killed by Jata Choda Bhima. The Eastern Chalukyan succession crisis provided repeated opportunities for the Rashtrakutas to interfere and establish their hegemony over Vengi.

The Komatis (Vaisyas) as a trading class were a flourishing community during the Eastern Chalukyan period. Their organisation into a powerful guild (Nakaram) which had its headquarters in Penugonda (West Godavari district) and branches in seventeen other centres had its beginnings in this period. The Eastern Chalukyan period thus saw the rise of organized trade guilds in Andhra. There also seems to have been a minister for communal affairs (samayamantri) in the government. The guild (Nakaram) system with Penugonda as headquarters became a significant feature of trade organisation in medieval Andhra.

Satyasraya (997-1008 A.D.), the son and successor of Tailapa II (Western Chalukyas), sent his general Baya Nambi to invade the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom in 1006 A.D. to overthrow the Chola-Chalukya alliance. The general entered Vengi from the south, reduced the forts of Dharanikota and Yanamadala to ashes and established himself at Chebrolu (Guntur district). Rajaraja Chola I countered this by sending his son Rajendra Chola to invade Rattapadi in the west, compelling Satyasraya to withdraw his army from Vengi for the defence of his own realm.

Kulottunga Chola I was Rajendra Chalukya — the son of the Eastern Chalukya Rajaraja Narendra and the Chola princess Ammangai (daughter of Rajendra Chola I).

On the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son Adhirajendra in 1070 A.D., Rajendra Chalukya (who was a descendant through his mother from Rajendra Chola I) went to Tanjore and established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga Chola I. He reconciled with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi. After Vijayaditya’s death in 1075-76 A.D., the Eastern Chalukyan line ended and Vengi became a Chola province.

During the reign of Chalukya Bhima I (892-921 A.D.), the Rashtrakuta Krishna II invaded the Vengi country . The Rashtrakutas reached the outskirts of the capital Vengi. Two notable engagements took place — one at Niravadyapura and the other at Peruvanguru. In these two engagements, Irimartiganda, son of Bhima I, was victorious against the Rashtrakutas; but he lost his life. After these engagements, the rest of the reign of Chalukya Bhima I passed peacefully.

According to historical records and the Mangallu inscription (956 CE), Irimartiganda was a son of Chalukya Bhima I who played a key role in defending the Vengi kingdom against Rashtrakuta invasions. Although he was victorious, the battles, particularly the one at Peruvanguru near Nidadavolu, resulted in his death.

The Eastern Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas waged wars for approximately 200 years with a view to dislodging each other. Both the dynasties tried to establish their hegemony over the other whenever the opportunity came. The struggle was not strictly confined to these two dynasties — at times they took help from neighbouring kingdoms. The fortunes fluctuated from one dynasty to the other, and neither could establish a permanent grip over the other. Even matrimonial alliances between them proved to be more political than cemented with any bond of love. This two-century conflict is a defining feature of Eastern Chalukyan history.

Around 1042 A.D., the Western Chalukya Ahavamalla Somesvara I, allied with Vijayaditya VII, sent an expedition against Vengi. Rajendra Chola I sent some Chola forces to Vengi under his Brahman general Rajaraja Brahmamaharaja. A bloody battle took place at Kalidindi in the West Godavari district. The result of the battle was indecisive.

Telugu Desi poetry (indigenous folk poetry distinct from Sanskrit-influenced literary Telugu) makes its first appearance in the Addanki and Kandukur inscriptions of Pandaranga in the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya III in the latter half of the ninth century A.D. However, no literary work of any significant value appeared until the 11th century A.D. Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the earliest extant LITERARY work of Telugu. The Addanki and Kandukur inscriptions thus mark the earliest known appearance of Telugu Desi verse, predating Nannaya by about 150 years.

Addanki inscription, also known as the Pandaranga inscription, which belongs to 848 CE.

• Significance: It is often regarded as the first Padya Sasanam (poetic inscription) in Telugu.
• Structure: It is composed in the Taruvoja metre (a type of Desi metre) and includes the necessary poetic elements of Yati (pause) and Prasa (rhyme).
• Content: The inscription records a land grant by the king Gunaga Vijayaditya III to Pandaranga for his victories in military campaigns, particularly during his stay at the Boya campaign.

The Kopparam plates of Vishnuvardhana, issued in the 21st regnal year of Pulakesin II, clearly show Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy (not as an independent ruler) of the Andhra area. This plate corresponds to approximately 631 A.D. The evidence establishes the starting point of Eastern Chalukyan chronology as between the Maruturu plates (616 A.D.) and the Kopparam plates (631 A.D.) — with 624 A.D. (proposed by B.V. Krishnarao, Dr. Venkataramanayya and Dr. Ramesan) falling within this range as the most satisfactory date for Kubja Vishnuvardhana’s appointment as Viceroy of Vengi.

The Satara grant speaks of the presence of Kubja Vishnuvardhana on the banks of the Bhimaradhi (the Bhima river in Maharashtra) as Yuvaraja in the 8th regnal year of Pulakesin II (616-17 A.D.). This proves that at the time of the Maruturu grant (616 A.D.) when Vengi was being conquered, Kubja Vishnuvardhana was still in the West — on the banks of the Bhima river — as a Yuvaraja serving his brother. This establishes that the date of appointment of Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy of Vengi should be AFTER 616 A.D. — thus between 616 A.D. and 631 A.D. (Kopparam plates), with 624 A.D. being the most acceptable year.

After the indecisive Kalidindi battle, the Rajadhiraja I’s temporary relief for Rajaraja Narendra proved short-lived. In 1047 A.D., Vengi and Kalinga were lost to the Cholas/Western Chalukyas. The Western Chalukyas held them almost up to the end of Chola Virarajendra’s reign (1062-69 A.D.). Rajaraja Narendra, realising that continued fight with the Western Chalukyas was waste, concluded peace with Somesvara I. To show respect towards the Karnatakas, he assumed their titles ‘Satyasrayakulasekhara’ and ‘Samastabhuvanasraya’. Somesvara I appointed his Pradhani (minister) Narayanabhatta as Sthanapati at Rajamahendravaram — who notably assisted Nannaya in composing the Telugu Mahabharata.

According to the earliest Chalukyan legend preserved in the inscription dated 578 A.D. at Badami: the Chalukyas were worshippers of the feet of the sacred Lord Kartikeya, belonged to Manavyasa Gotra, and had purified themselves by the performance of several yajnas.

After Rajaraja Narendra’s death (1061 A.D.), his son Rajendra Chalukya (by Chola princess Ammangai) was brought up in the Chola harem. He married Madhurantakidevi, daughter of Rajendra II. Chola rulers sent forces to restore him on the Vengi throne against Vijayaditya VII. For sometime he was found ruling in Chakrakuta while his uncle Vijayaditya VII ruled Vengi. Vikramaditya VI arranged for Vijayaditya to make submission to Virarajendra Chola and Virarajendra even gave his daughter to Vikramaditya VI. On the death of Virarajendra and the assassination of his son Adhirajendra in 1070 A.D., Rajendra Chalukya went to Tanjore and ascended the Chola throne as Kulottunga Chola I — uniting the Eastern Chalukya and Chola lineages.

The author explicitly states: ‘it is reasonable to hold that there was no settled administration worthy of the name in the kingdom as a whole. Fratricidal wars and foreign invasions frequently disturbed the land.’ The territory was parcelled out into many small principalities (estates) held by the nobility — collateral branches of the royal house (Elamanchili, Pithapuram, Mudigonda estates) and kshatriya families (Kona Haihayas, Kolanu Saronathas), as well as others raised to high position (Velanadus, Kondapadamatis, Chagis, Parichhedis). The critical weakness: ‘When the Vengi ruler was strong, the nobility paid allegiance and tribute to him, but when the weakness was apparent, they were ready to join hands with the enemies against the royal house.’ This feudal fragmentation made the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom politically vulnerable throughout its existence.

Ammaraja I is credited with building the city of Rajamahendravaram (modern Rajahmundry) on the banks of the Godavari river and shifting the capital of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom from Vengi to it.

While Raja Raja Narendra (1019–1061) is famous for his association with the city and for making it a prominent cultural center, historical records indicate that Ammaraja I (reigned earlier) was the one who initially established the city as the capital.

Before Nannaya, next to Sanskrit, Kannada was the language that commanded prestige and position in the literary world of Andhra. The three great Kannada poets who were Jains by faith and closely associated with Kammanadu and Vangipuram (Guntur district) were:

(1) Pampa — who wrote the Jaina Bharata, Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya;

(2) Ponna — who wrote Santipurana; and

(3) Nagavarma — who wrote Chhandombudhi and Kadambari.

These Kannada poets’ influence in the Andhra region (their Jain Bharata especially) was what prompted Nannaya to write a Telugu version of the Mahabharata to counteract Pampa’s Jain influence.

According to the earliest Chalukyan legend (inscription at Badami, 578 A.D.), the Chalukyas obtained the Varaha Lanchana (Boar emblem) by the divine favour and grace of Vishnu. The Varaha (boar) is the third avatar of Vishnu. This emblem is found on Chalukyan royal seals and coins. The Chalukyas also belonged to Manavyasa Gotra, worshipped Lord Kartikeya, were nourished by the Saptamatrikas and performed several yajnas.

Rajaraja Chola I espoused the cause of the sons of Danamava, who were deprived of their kingdom by Jata Choda Bhima. He gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya, the younger of the two princes. This was but the beginning of a series of diplomatic marriages between the Eastern Chalukyas and the Cholas.

Later, Rajaraja Narendra (son of Vimaladitya and Kundavai) married the Chola princess Ammangai (daughter of Rajendra Chola I), and their son Rajendra Chalukya ultimately became Kulottunga Chola I. The Kundavai-Vimaladitya marriage thus began the dynastic fusion that would culminate in the Chalukya-Chola synthesis.