Practice Questions on Vishnukundins (AP History) for APPSC exams

Cave structures at Bezwada (Vijayawada), Mogalrajapuram, Vundavalli and Bhairavakonda were dated to the Vishnukundin period. Though some of these cave temples were attributed to the Pallavas (Mahendravarma I), the emblems found on the caves and the fact that these areas were under Vishnukundin rule during this period clearly show these were contributions of the Vishnukundins. The big four-storeyed cave at Vundavalli and the 8 cave temples at Bhairavakonda (Nellore district) show resemblances with Pallava Mahendravarman’s architectural style — but their attribution to the Vishnukundins is supported by the territorial and emblematic evidence presented in the text.

For administrative convenience, the Vishnukundin empire was divided into a number of Rashtras and Vishayas. Inscriptions refer to Palki rashtra, Karma rashtra, Guddadi vishaya, etc. Vishayamahattaras might have been the heads of the Vishayas. Villages enjoyed autonomy within their jurisdiction. The ruler carried on administration depending upon the Sukraniti.

The Vishnukundin rule was brought to a close around 624 A.D. by the Eastern Chalukyas. By about 616 A.D., Pulakesin II and his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana conquered Vengi from the Vishnukundins and the Pithapur area from their subordinate Durjayas.

Pulakeshin II appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the viceroy of this newly conquered territory, who later declared independence and founded the Eastern Chalukya dynasty

The Vishnukundin inscriptions mention that the ruler carried on administration depending upon the Sukraniti. Sukraniti is an ancient Indian text on statecraft and political ethics authored by Sukracharya. Its mention in Vishnukundin records indicates that the dynasty’s rulers based their governance on established Brahmanical political philosophy. The Sukraniti lays down rules for administration, military organization, and the conduct of rulers. Combined with the appointment of viceroys for strategic areas and well-organized revenue collection machinery, the Vishnukundin administration appears to have been methodically organized.

The Vishnukundin army consisted of the traditional Chaturangabala (four-fold army).

• Hastikosa was the officer-in-charge of elephant forces.
• Virakosa was the officer-in-charge of land forces.
• Hastikosa and Virakosa had the authority to issue land grants on behalf of their monarchs, highlighting their high status in the administrative and military hierarchy

The Chikkulla grant and the Tundi grant of Vikramendravarma II are two important copper-plate inscriptions that provide genealogical information about the Vishnukundins.

• The Tundi grant gives his latest regnal year as fourteen. Tundi is identified with modern Tuni in the East Godavari district — this village was donated to a Brahmin after his victory over the Pallava ruler Simhavarman.
• The Chikkulla grant, along with the Ramatirtham plates of Indravarma, form the group of three records that help scholars arrive at the Vishnukundin genealogy.

Sixteen types of coins of the Vishnukundin rulers, brought to light by Dr. R. Subrahmanyam, speak well of the economic prosperity of the kingdom. The variety and number of coin types indicate active commerce and a monetized economy. A well-organized administrative machinery existed for collection of land revenue, and Agrahara villages enjoyed tax exemptions. The Vishnukundin administration was based on the Sukraniti. The coins also reflect the cultural and religious identity of the rulers, as ancient Indian coins typically bore symbols related to the rulers’ religious affiliations and dynastic emblems.

‘Janasraya Chhandovichhiti’ is an incomplete work on Sanskrit poetics, specifically on Chhandas — the study of metrical composition and versification. Chhandovichhiti means a treatise on the varieties of metres (Chhandas).

Attributed to Madhavavarma IV (who bore the title Janasraya), this work shows that Vishnukundin rulers were not merely patrons of Sanskrit learning but were themselves active participants in literary culture. Combined with Vikramendravarma I being titled ‘Mahakavi’, the Vishnukundins emerge as a dynasty that combined martial prowess with genuine literary and scholarly engagement — a hallmark of the Deccan’s 5th-6th century cultural renaissance.

After his extensive conquests — defeating the Anandagotrins, annexing the Vengi kingdom from the Salankayanas, and adding the Godavari tract — Madhavavarma II performed many Asvamedha, Rajasuya and other sacrifices. These extensive conquests entitle him to the title of the lord of Dakshinapatha (lord of the South/Deccan). This was the same title (‘Dakshinapathapati’) used by the great Satavahana king Satakarni II — showing how Madhavavarma II was consciously projecting himself as the heir to the imperial Deccan tradition.

Based on the reference to Madhavavarma in the literary work Sri Krishna Vijaya (which is of a later date) and a 12th-century A.D. inscription in the Malliswaraswamy temple at Vijayawada, this particular Madhavavarma is placed at the end of the dynasty. 

•  While there are multiple rulers named Madhavavarma (specifically Madhavavarma II, who was a prominent “Golden Age” ruler), the mention in Sri Krishna Vijaya combined with the 12th-century inscription, which records his rule in Saka 514 (approx. 592 A.D.), indicates he is placed at the conclusion of the Vishnukundina dynasty.
• The Inscription: The Malliswaraswamy temple inscription in Vijayawada (also known as Bezwada) mentions a Madhavavarma, contributing to the understanding of the dynasty’s final phase before they were defeated by the Chalukyas. 

The Vishnukundin west-to-east expansion is significant:

(1) Early rulers were feudatories under the Vakatakas with Indrapalanagara (Tummalagudem, Nalgonda) as capital;

(2) Madhavavarma II the Great conquered the Anandagotrins and made Amarapura (Amaravati) capital;

(3) He then annexed Vengi from the Salankayanas and shifted capital to Bezwada (Vijayawada);

(4) Vikramendravarma II further moved capital to Lenduluru (Denduluru, West Godavari) for Kalinga access.

Each capital shift mirrors the dynasty’s territorial expansion, making the capital changes key markers in exam questions on Vishnukundin political history.

Vikramendravarma II repulsed the attack of the Pallava ruler Simhavarman. This military success helped restore the fortunes of the Vishnukundins.

The Manchikallu stone inscription of Simhavarma (Pallava) and the Indrapalanagara plates of the Vishnukundin king mention a king called Simha (Varma) whom the Vishnukundin king defeated. After this victory, Vikramendravarma II donated Tundi (Tuni) village to a Brahmin and styled himself as ‘Uttamasraya’, indicating this was a significant military victory that he celebrated with religious charity.

In his 37th regnal year, Madhavavarma IV suppressed the revolt of his subordinate chief the Durjaya Prithvimaharaja in Guddadivishaya, identified with modern Ramachandrapuram Taluk in the East Godavari district. This event shows that Madhavavarma IV had to deal with internal rebellions even while facing external threats from the Chalukyas.

The Durjayas were a local ruling family in the Godavari region, and Pithapur was their important centre. After Madhavavarma IV’s death around 621 A.D., the Chalukyas also took the Pithapur area from the Durjayas.

Though Indrabhattarakavarma (528-555 A.D.) overcame the troubles from internal rivals like his cousin Madhavavarma III (Trikutamalayadhipati), he could not withstand the hostile Kalinga subordinate Indravarma of the Jirjingi plates and lost his life. As a result, the Vishnukundins lost their Kalinga possessions north of the Godavari. This loss of Kalinga was a major setback for the dynasty. It was left to his successor Vikramendravarma II to restore the Vishnukundin prestige in the Kalinga region after repulsing the Pallava Simhavarman.

624 A.D. was fixed as the beginning of Eastern Chalukyan rule in Vengi by Dr. N.V. Ramanayya, supported by Dr. N. Ramesan.

• Kubja Vishnuvardhana I, the younger brother of Pulakeshin II of the Badami Chalukyas, was appointed as the governor of the Vengi region around 615–616 CE, but he declared independence and established the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty in 624 CE, following the death of Pulakeshin II. The rule lasted from 624 CE until the 12th century, with Vengi (near Eluru) serving as the capital.

According to the Indrapalanagara plates, Maharaja Indravarma is considered to be the first ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty. He might have carved out a small principality for himself, probably as a subordinate of the Vakatakas, sometime about the last quarter of the fourth century A.D. Not much information is known about him and the next two kings — Madhavavarma I and his son Govindavarma I — who kept intact the inheritance or extended their sway to some extent.

• Establishment: He established the dynasty in the late 4th century CE (c. 380–407 CE), initially ruling as a subordinate or vassal of the Vakatakas.
• Capital: He founded a new capital named Indrapura (identified with modern Indrapalagutta near Tummalagudem in Nalgonda district).
• Titles: He is referred to in the plates with the titles of Maharaja and Priya Putra.
• The Inscription: The Indrapalanagara plates record his 27th regnal year and detail a land grant made to a Buddhist vihara while he was stationed at a victorious military camp

Madhavavarma II, keeping in view the constant threat from the Pallavas, created an outpost called ‘Trikutamalaya’ to check their activities. He appointed his son Devavarma and after his death, grandson Madhavavarma III as Viceroy of this southern outpost. This Trikutamalaya is identified with Kotappakonda in Narasaraopet Taluk in the Guntur district. The name Trikutamalaya (three-peaked hill) fits well with the three-peaked Kotappakonda hill. Madhavavarma III’s title ‘Trikutamalayadhipati’ reflects his role as viceroy of this strategic outpost.

The Indrapalanagara grant of Vikramendravarma II is the only Vishnukundin grant dated in a specific era — it was dated in his 11th regnal year corresponding to Saka 488 (approximately 566 A.D.). All other Vishnukundin grants were dated in their regnal years only. On the basis of this specific date (Saka 488 = his 11th regnal year), scholars calculated that Vikramendravarma II ascended the throne in Saka 477 i.e., 555 A.D. His Tundi grant gives his latest regnal year as fourteen, so his reign is placed between 555 A.D. and 569 A.D.

Dr. Hultzch’s opinion that the Ipur plates-II set was earlier than the Ipur plates-I set is significant for the genealogical controversy. If the Ipur-II set is earlier, then Madhavavarma I of that set (and not Madhavavarma II) could be identified with Maharaja Madhavavarma — the great performer of sacrifices mentioned in three other records (Ramatirtham, Chikkulla and Tundi). This argument supports the ‘two Madhavavarmas’ school of thought. The palaeographic dating of the plates becomes crucial in determining which Madhavavarma was the great ruler who performed numerous Vedic sacrifices.

The family name ‘Vishnukundin’ is derived from Vishnukundinapura, which is identified with modern Vinukonda in Palnadu district (erstehile Guntur district). This identification, along with their affinity with Sriparvataswami (Lord Mallikarjuna of Srisailam), traces the origin of the Vishnukundins to the Guntur district area.

Historians like Keilhorn suggest that “Vishnukundin” is the Sanskritised form of the Telugu name “Vinukonda”. While the dynasty ruled from various capitals such as Indrapala, Denduluru, and Amaravati, Vinukonda is widely regarded as their ancestral home or original seat of power.

According to B.N. Sastri’s theory, the early rulers of the Vishnukundin dynasty migrated to the west in search of employment and under the Vakatakas they might have attained feudatory status with Indrapalanagara (Tummalagudem) in Nalgonda district as their capital. Later, in the time of Madhavavarma the Great, they became independent and conquered coastal Andhra from the Salankayanas, shifting their capital to a place in coastal Andhra.

Madhava Varma II of the Vishnukundin dynasty conquered the Vengi region from the Salankayana dynasty. He defeated the Salankayanas in the late 5th century CE, which allowed the Vishnukundins to expand their territory into coastal Andhra, shifting their capital to places like Denduluru (near Vengi)

The Salankayanas were a post-Ikshvaku dynasty who used their Gotra as their dynastic name and had ruled the Krishna-Godavari basin. Their overthrow by Madhavavarma II marks the consolidation of Vishnukundin power in coastal Andhra.

In 621 A.D. (his 48th regnal year), Madhavavarma IV crossed the Godavari probably to oust the Eastern Chalukyas from his territories. However, he lost his life on the battlefield. After Madhavavarma IV’s death, his son Manchanabhattaraka also might have been expelled by the Chalukyas. Thus the Vishnukundin rule was brought to a close by 624 A.D. Madhavavarma IV’s long reign of nearly 48 years (573-621 A.D.) represents the last great phase of the Vishnukundin empire before its fall to the Eastern Chalukyas.

The main genealogical controversy about the Vishnukundins centres on the identification of Madhavavarma — the great performer of sacrifices. One school argues there were two kings named Madhavavarma of great repute; the other school argues the improbability of two kings of the same name performing equal numbers of sacrifices within a short span of time. Scholars like M.S. Sharma identified Madhavavarma II of the Ipuru plates second set with Madhavavarma of three other records — but this identification is contested because the epithets and specific features of the two Madhavavarmas differ significantly.

The title Uttamasraya was assumed by the Vishnukundin ruler Vikramendra Varma II (also known as Vikramendra-bhattaraka Varman).The title is mentioned in the Indrapura vihara grant (or Indrapalanagara grant) of Vikramendra Varma II, dated in his 11th regnal year.

The grant records that Vikramendra Varma II assumed the title “Uttamasraya” after his military success, specifically referring to the defeat of the Pallava ruler Simhavarman.

Argument (3) for two Madhavavarmas: The title ‘Janasraya’ (meaning ‘refuge/shelter of the people’ — a title of benevolence and leadership) is given to Madhavavarma in the Polamuru grant but is NOT given to the other Maharaja Madhavavarma of the three records (Ramatirtham, Chikkulla, Tundi grants). In ancient Indian epigraphy, royal epithets and titles are highly specific and reflect actual characteristics or achievements of the ruler. The absence of ‘Janasraya’ in the three records of the great Maharaja Madhavavarma is a strong argument that these two Madhavavarmas are distinct rulers. Madhavavarma IV is consistently referred to as ‘Janasraya Madhavavarma IV’ in historical accounts based on this title.

Being a great believer in the efficacy of Sanatana Dharma, Indrabhattaraka established many Ghatikasthanas for imparting education on Vedic literature. Ghatikasthanas were educational institutions (colleges) for higher learning, especially in Vedic studies. This is an important contribution of the Vishnukundins to education and learning in Andhra.

While Madhava Varma II is known as the greatest ruler who performed multiple Vedic sacrifices (like Asvamedha), the specific credit for establishing the Ghatikas is often attributed to Indra Bhattaraka.

The inscriptions refer to the family deity of the Vishnukundins as Sriparvataswami — Lord Mallikarjuna of Srisailam. This association with Sriparvata (Srisailam) also connects to the Puranic name ‘Sri Parvatiya Andhras’ given to the Ikshvakus (who were the predecessors). The Vishnukundins were great devotees of Shiva (styling themselves as Paramamahesvaras), and the Srisailam temple in the Nallamala hills was their revered family shrine, indicating their deep connection with the Andhra geographical and religious landscape.

The two primary cave temple sites in Andhra Pradesh attributed to the Vishnukundin dynasty (5th–7th centuries CE) are the Undavalli Caves and the Bhairavakonda Caves. The Undavalli Caves feature a massive four-storeyed structure, while the Bhairavakonda site features eight rock-cut cave temples.

• Undavalli Caves (Guntur District): A major four-storeyed monolithic rock-cut complex, originally a Hindu monastery dedicated to Anantha Padmanabha and Narasimha, showing Gupta-style architecture.
• Bhairavakonda Caves (Nallamala Forest): Located in the Prakasham district, this site consists of eight rock-cut temples, often referred to as the Ashta Lingas, carved out of a single hill, demonstrating early Pallava-Vishnukundin influence

Indrapalanagara, the early capital of the Vishnukundins during their feudatory phase under the Vakatakas, is identified with Tummalagudem in Nalgonda district. The discovery of two Indrapalanagara grants (copper-plate inscriptions) helped scholars understand the early phase of the Vishnukundin dynasty. B.N. Sastri proposed that the early rulers migrated west and established their base at Indrapalanagara under Vakataka suzerainty before Madhavavarma II led them to independence and expanded into coastal Andhra.

According to his epithets in the Ipur I set and Polamuru plates, Madhavavarma IV conquered Tivara, the Somavamsi king of Mahakosala, married his daughter, and spent some time in their capital Trivaranagara. This conquest extended the Vishnukundin influence into Mahakosala (modern Chhattisgarh/northern Telangana region). The matrimonial alliance with the Somavamsi princess strengthened Madhavavarma IV’s political position. This is one of the significant military and diplomatic achievements of his long reign (573-621 A.D.).

From the time of the accession of Madhavavarma II, an aggressive self-assertion of Vedic Brahmanical revival is seen in Andhradesa. Elaborate Vedic ceremonies like Rajasuya, Purushamedha, Sarvamedha and Asvamedha were undertaken.

Before Madhava Varma II, while the dynasty was Hindu, they followed a policy of tolerance. Queen Parama Bhattarika, wife of Govinda Varma I, donated to a Buddhist vihara. The shift under Madhava Varma II cemented the dynasty’s dedication to Hindu orthodoxy, specifically Saivism and Vaishnavism. 

The Vishnukundin ruler who bore the title ‘Janasraya’ (meaning ‘Refuge of the People’) is Madhava Varma IV (also referred to as Janashraya Madhava Varma IV).

He is associated with the incomplete Sanskrit work on poetics/prosody entitled Janasraya Chando Vichiti (or Janashrayi-Chhandovichiti).

After Madhavavarma II occupied territories from the Anandagotrins (who were ruling Guntur, Tenali and Ongole Taluks), he made Amarapura — identified with modern Amaravati — his capital.

Later, after annexing the Vengi region from the Salankayanas and adding the Godavari tract to Vishnukundin territory, the capital was shifted to Bezwada (Vijayawada), which was a more central place than Amarapura. This shift of capitals reflects the expansion of the Vishnukundin empire from the south to the north.

With the accession of Vikramendravarma II (555-569 A.D.), the fallen prestige of the Vishnukundin family was restored. To have immediate access to the Kalinga region, he shifted his capital from Bezwada (Vijayawada) to Lenduluru, identified with modern Denduluru in the West Godavari district.

From this more northerly capital, he successfully repulsed the attack of the Pallava ruler Simhavarman and restored Vishnukundin fortunes in the Kalinga region. After his victory, he donated Tundi (Tuni) village to a Brahmin and styled himself as ‘Uttamasraya’.

The Polamuru grant of Janasraya Madhavavarma IV (or Madhava IV), which records his 48th regnal year on a full moon day in the month of Phalguna, is generally accepted to correspond to approximately 621 A.D.. This date places his reign from roughly 573 A.D. to 621 A.D., preceding the Eastern Chalukyan occupation of Vengi, often placed around 624 A.D

Govindavarma I was hailed as a Buddhist and builder of stupas and Viharas. His wife Paramabhattarikamahadevi also patronised Buddhism and built a monastery.

While the Vishnukundina kings were primarily followers of Vedic Hinduism (specifically Saivism and Vaishnavism), Govinda Varma I demonstrated religious tolerance and supported Buddhist institutions.

• Govinda Vihara Construction: He built a Buddhist monastery named Govinda Vihara on the banks of the Musi River in Chaitanyapuri.
• Tummalagudem Inscription: The Tummalagudem Inscription (second set) records his grants to a Mahavihara associated with his chief queen, Parama-Mahadevi, showing his support for Buddhist monks.

Vikramendravarma I of the Vishnukundin dynasty was the offspring of a political marriage between the Vishnukundin dynasty and the Vakatakas.
He was the son of the powerful Vishnukundin king Madhavavarma II (also known as Madhavavarman I in some sources) and a Vakataka princess, often identified as the daughter of Prithivishena II.

The Vishnukundin ruler described as ‘Mahakavi’ (great poet) in a record is Vikramendra Varma I (or Vikramendra Varma I).

While Vikramendra I is called a poet, an incomplete work on Sanskrit poetics, Janasraya Chando Vichiti, is attributed to Madhava Varma IV, who bore the title Janasraya.

The reign of Madhavavarma II lasting nearly half a century (461–508 A.D.), is considered a golden age in the history of the Vishnukundins. During this period, the small Vishnukundin dynasty was raised to imperial dignity.

He conquered the Anandagotrins, annexed the Vengi kingdom from the Salankayanas, made Amarapura (Amaravati) his capital, and performed many Asvamedha, Rajasuya and other sacrifices. A Vakataka princess was given in marriage to his son Vikramendravarma I.

He is credited with changing Buddhist cave temples (such as those at Undavalli and Mogalrajapuram) into Hindu temples and creating a lasting cultural legacy, including promoting Sanskrit

The Vishnukundin self-description as ‘priestly class committed to arms’ indicates Brahmanical (priestly/learned class) social origins combined with military power — normally associated with Kshatriyas. This is not unusual in post-Gupta India: the Kadambas, Vakatakas, and other Deccan dynasties similarly claimed Brahmanical origins while ruling as kings.

The Vishnukundins’ Brahmanical identity is confirmed by their Sanskrit names, performance of elaborate Vedic sacrifices (Asvamedha, Rajasuya, Purushamedha, Sarvamedha), patronage of Ghatikasthanas, and their family deity association with Srisailam. Their ‘priestly class committed to arms’ description is a key exam fact about their social identity.

So far 9 copper-plate inscriptions and one stone inscription pertaining to the Vishnukundin dynasty have been discovered. Though they supply a lot of information, they do not speak anything about the origin and founder of the dynasty. Several attempts were made to solve the problem of the dynasty’s origin and genealogy, but no definitive conclusion has yet been reached. The inscriptions form the primary source material for reconstructing Vishnukundin history.