⚔️ Rise of Rajput Kingdoms

After Harsha’s death (647 CE), North India fragmented into small kingdoms. The Rajputs emerged as the dominant political force in North India from the 7th to 12th centuries CE.

Origin of Rajputs — Theories:

• Foreign origin theory: Descended from Central Asian invaders (Hunas, Kushanas) who were absorbed into Hindu society
• Agnikula theory: Four Rajput clans (Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chahamanas, Chalukyas) emerged from a sacred fire pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu — mythological
• Kshatriya origin: Descended from ancient Kshatriya clans

Major Rajput Clans:

🕌 Arab Invasion of Sindh (712 CE)

• Muhammad bin Qasim (Umayyad general) invaded Sindh in 712 CE
• Defeated and killed Dahir (Hindu king of Sindh)
• Conquered Sindh and southern Punjab
• Source: Chach Nama (Arabic account of the conquest)
• Impact: First permanent Muslim foothold in India; introduced Islam to Sindh
• Arab advance was stopped by Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas — prevented further expansion

⚔️ Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th centuries)

Three powerful dynasties — Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas — fought for control of Kanauj (the most prestigious city in North India) for about 200 years:

• Pratiharas (North India) — wanted Kanauj for prestige and control of Gangetic plains
• Palas (Bengal/Bihar) — wanted Kanauj to extend westward
• Rashtrakutas (Deccan) — wanted Kanauj to assert pan-Indian supremacy
• No single dynasty could hold Kanauj permanently — exhausted all three
• Outcome: All three dynasties weakened; made India vulnerable to Ghaznavid invasions

⚔️ Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030 CE)

• Sultan of Ghazni (Afghanistan); son of Sabuktigin
• Made 17 invasions of India between 1000–1027 CE
• Primary motive: Plunder — looted temples and cities
• Most famous raid: Somnath Temple (Gujarat) in 1025 CE — looted enormous wealth
• Defeated Jaipal (Shahi king of Punjab) in 1001 CE
• Court historian: Al-Biruni — wrote Kitab-ul-Hind
• Court poet: Firdausi — wrote Shahnama
• Mahmud did not establish a permanent empire in India — only Punjab was annexed

⚔️ Muhammad Ghori & Conquest of India

• Sultan of Ghor (Afghanistan); unlike Mahmud, wanted to establish a permanent empire
• First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE): Defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan III
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE): Defeated Prithviraj Chauhan; decisive victory; opened North India to Muslim rule
• Conquered Delhi, Ajmer, Varanasi, Bihar
• Left his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak in charge of India
• Assassinated in 1206 CE; Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate

🏛️ Rajput Society & Culture

• Feudal system — king at top; samanta (vassal lords) below; peasants at bottom
• Rajput code of honour — bravery, loyalty, protection of women
• Jauhar — mass self-immolation by Rajput women when defeat was imminent
• Saka — Rajput warriors fighting to death rather than surrender
• Khajuraho temples (Chandella) — finest Rajput architecture; erotic sculptures
• Dilwara temples (Mount Abu) — Jain temples; finest marble work

✅ Chapter 07 Revision Checklist