✅ Answer: A) “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”This is the classic definition of Sustainable Development from the Brundtland Commission’s report “Our Common Future” (1987). The commission was chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, former PM of Norway. The report highlighted the link between environment and development. It led to the Earth Summit (1992) and the concept of sustainable development becoming central to global policy.

✅ Answer: C) 2015The 17 SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals) were adopted by the UN General Assembly in September 2015 as part of the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” They replaced the MDGs (Millennium Development Goals, 2000-2015). SDGs have 169 targets and 232 indicators. They are universal — apply to all countries (unlike MDGs which focused on developing countries). India’s NITI Aayog monitors SDG progress and publishes the SDG India Index annually.

✅ Answer: B) Kyoto Protocol (1997)The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was established under the Kyoto Protocol (1997). It allows developed countries (Annex I) to fund emission reduction projects in developing countries and earn Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) — carbon credits. India was one of the largest CDM project hosts. CDM projects include renewable energy, energy efficiency, and afforestation. Under the Paris Agreement, CDM is being replaced by the Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM) under Article 6.

✅ Answer: A) EIA Notification 2006 under the Environment Protection Act 1986EIA in India is mandatory under the EIA Notification 2006, issued under the Environment Protection Act 1986. Projects are categorised as A (national level clearance) and B (state level clearance). The EIA process includes: screening, scoping, baseline data collection, impact prediction, mitigation measures, public hearing, and environmental clearance. Public hearing is mandatory for Category A and B1 projects. The EIA Amendment 2020 was controversial for reducing public participation.

✅ Answer: A) Eliminating waste by keeping resources in use as long as possible (reduce, reuse, recycle)The Circular Economy is an economic model that aims to eliminate waste by keeping resources in use as long as possible. It contrasts with the linear economy (take-make-dispose). Principles: reduce consumption, reuse products, recycle materials, recover energy. It is inspired by natural systems where there is no waste. India’s initiatives: Swachh Bharat Mission, Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), plastic waste management rules, e-waste management rules.

✅ Answer: C) SDG 13SDG 13 is “Climate Action” — take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Other environment-related SDGs: SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 15 (Life on Land). SDG 1 = No Poverty; SDG 2 = Zero Hunger; SDG 3 = Good Health; SDG 4 = Quality Education; SDG 5 = Gender Equality. India performs well on SDG 7 (energy access) but faces challenges on SDG 3 and SDG 4.

✅ Answer: A) Four (Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, Supporting)Ecosystem Services are classified into 4 categories: Provisioning (food, water, timber, medicines), Regulating (climate regulation, flood control, water purification, pollination), Cultural (recreation, tourism, spiritual values, education), Supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation, photosynthesis). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) popularised this framework. Natural capital accounting attempts to assign monetary values to ecosystem services. India’s forests provide ecosystem services worth trillions of rupees annually.

✅ Answer: A) Subtracting the cost of environmental degradation and resource depletionGreen GDP adjusts conventional GDP by subtracting the cost of environmental degradation (pollution, ecosystem damage) and resource depletion (mining, deforestation). It provides a more accurate measure of economic welfare. China experimented with Green GDP but abandoned it due to political resistance. India’s ENVIS (Environmental Information System) and CPCB track environmental costs. The concept of “Genuine Progress Indicator” (GPI) is a broader alternative to GDP that includes social and environmental factors.

✅ Answer: A) Setting a total emission cap; companies trade emission permits within the capIn a Cap-and-Trade system, the government sets a total emission cap. Companies receive or buy emission permits. Companies that emit less can sell their surplus permits to companies that emit more. The total emissions are capped, but the market determines who reduces emissions most efficiently. The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the world’s largest cap-and-trade system. India is developing a Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) under the Energy Conservation Amendment Act 2022.

✅ Answer: A) Assessed the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being and established the ecosystem services frameworkThe Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) was a major scientific appraisal of the condition and trends of the world’s ecosystems. It found that 60% of ecosystem services are being degraded or used unsustainably. It established the ecosystem services framework (provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting). It was commissioned by the UN Secretary-General and involved 1,360 experts from 95 countries. Its findings influenced the CBD’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services).