✅ Answer: B) RigvedaThe Rigveda is the oldest text in any Indo-European language, composed around 1500–1200 BCE. It contains 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 mandalas (books). It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. The Gayatri Mantra is from Rigveda (Mandala 3).

✅ Answer: A) IndraIndra is the most important god in the Rigveda with ~250 hymns dedicated to him. He is the god of thunder, rain, and war. He is called “Purandhara” (destroyer of forts). Agni is second with ~200 hymns. Varuna is the guardian of Rita (cosmic moral order). Vishnu was a minor god in the Vedic period.

✅ Answer: D) Spells, charms, and folk beliefsThe Atharvaveda contains spells, charms, folk beliefs, and hymns. It is the most “popular” of the four Vedas, reflecting everyday concerns — healing diseases, warding off evil, love charms. It is also a source for early Ayurveda (medicine). It was the last to be accepted as a Veda.

✅ Answer: B) Philosophical conclusion of the VedasUpanishads are called “Vedanta” (Veda + anta = end of Vedas) because they represent the final philosophical conclusions of Vedic thought. They emphasise knowledge (jnana) over ritual. Core teaching: Brahman = Atman (universal soul = individual soul). There are 108 Upanishads.

✅ Answer: B) General assembly of all tribesmenThe Samiti was the general assembly of all tribesmen — more democratic than Sabha. It could elect and depose the king. The Atharvaveda says “Sabha and Samiti are the two daughters of Prajapati.” Sabha was the assembly of elders with judicial functions. Vidatha was the oldest assembly where both men and women participated.

✅ Answer: B) Varna changed from occupational to hereditaryIn the Early Vedic period, varna was based on occupation and could change. In the Later Vedic period, varna became hereditary (based on birth) — a major social change. Also: Early Vedic was pastoral; Later Vedic was agricultural. Women had higher status in Early Vedic period. Iron appeared in Later Vedic period.

✅ Answer: C) Assert sovereigntyThe Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) was performed to assert sovereignty. A horse was released to roam freely for a year — any king who stopped the horse had to fight or submit. At the end, the horse was sacrificed. Rajasuya was the royal consecration ceremony. Vajapeya was the chariot race ceremony.

✅ Answer: C) Philosophical debates and scholarshipGargi and Maitreyi were famous women philosophers of the Vedic age. Gargi participated in philosophical debates at the court of King Janaka. Maitreyi was the wife of philosopher Yajnavalkya and engaged in philosophical discussions with him (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad). They represent the high status of women in Early Vedic period.

✅ Answer: C) Rigveda, Mandala 3; SavitriThe Gayatri Mantra is from the Rigveda (Mandala 3, verse 62.10). It is dedicated to Savitri, a form of the Sun god. It is considered the most sacred mantra in Hinduism. The mantra was composed by sage Vishvamitra. It is recited during the Upanayana (sacred thread) ceremony.

✅ Answer: C) War (cattle raids)The term “Gavishti” (search for cows) in the Rigveda refers to war — specifically cattle raids. This shows that cattle were the primary form of wealth in Early Vedic society. Wars were fought to capture cattle. The word for war in Rigveda is “Gavishti” — reflecting the pastoral economy of the period.