✅ Answer: B) 42nd Amendment (1976)Article 48A (DPSP — State shall protect and improve the environment) and Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty — citizen shall protect the environment) were both added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976. The 42nd Amendment is called the “Mini Constitution” as it made extensive changes. Article 48A is a Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP) — not enforceable in court but guides state policy. Article 51A(g) is a Fundamental Duty — also not directly enforceable.

✅ Answer: C) Article 253The Environment Protection Act 1986 was enacted under Article 253 of the Constitution, which empowers Parliament to make laws to implement international treaties and conventions. India enacted EPA 1986 to implement the decisions of the Stockholm Conference (1972). Article 253 gives Parliament the power to legislate on any subject in the State List if it is for implementing international obligations. This is why EPA 1986 is a central law despite environment being in the Concurrent List.

✅ Answer: A) Align with CITES obligations and strengthen wildlife protectionThe Wildlife Protection Act 1972 was amended in 2022 to align with CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) obligations. The amendment reduced the number of schedules from 6 to 4, reorganised species listings, and strengthened penalties for wildlife crimes. It also added provisions for invasive alien species management. The amendment was necessary to implement India’s CITES commitments and update the species lists based on current conservation status.

✅ Answer: A) Environment Protection Act 1986The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification is issued under the Environment Protection Act 1986. CRZ regulates activities within 500 metres of the high tide line along the coast. It classifies coastal areas into CRZ-I (ecologically sensitive), CRZ-II (urban areas), CRZ-III (rural areas), and CRZ-IV (water area). The latest CRZ Notification was issued in 2019. It aims to protect coastal ecosystems while allowing sustainable development. Violations of CRZ are common and frequently challenged in NGT and courts.

✅ Answer: A) Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar (1991)In Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the right to live in a pollution-free environment is part of the fundamental right to life under Article 21. This was a landmark expansion of Article 21. M.C. Mehta vs Union of India (1987) established the Absolute Liability principle. The Vellore Citizens case established the Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle. These cases have shaped India’s environmental jurisprudence significantly.

✅ Answer: A) Forest Conservation Act 1980The Van Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan Adhiniyam 2023 is an amendment to the Forest Conservation Act 1980. It renamed the Act and made several changes: exempted certain categories of land from the Act’s purview (border areas, strategic projects), allowed private sector participation in afforestation, and clarified the definition of “forest.” The amendment was controversial — critics argued it weakened forest protection. It was challenged in the Supreme Court.

✅ Answer: A) Disputes relating to environment, forests, and other natural resourcesThe NGT has jurisdiction over disputes relating to environment, forests, and other natural resources, including enforcement of legal rights relating to environment. It has original jurisdiction (can hear cases directly) and appellate jurisdiction (can hear appeals against orders of environmental authorities). Any person can file a case in NGT. Cases must be filed within 6 months. NGT can award compensation and order restoration of damaged environment. It has taken suo motu cognisance of environmental issues.

✅ Answer: A) Natural resources like air, water, and forests are held in trust by the state for the public and cannot be privatisedThe Public Trust Doctrine holds that natural resources like air, water, forests, and seashores are held in trust by the state for the benefit of the public. The state cannot alienate or privatise these resources. The Supreme Court applied this doctrine in M.C. Mehta vs Kamal Nath (1997) — a resort was built on a riverbed; the court ordered its removal. The doctrine has been used to protect rivers, forests, and coastal areas from private encroachment.

✅ Answer: A) Environment Protection Act 1986The Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules are issued under the Environment Protection Act 1986. They regulate the generation, storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste. India also has E-Waste Management Rules (2016), Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016), and Biomedical Waste Management Rules (2016) — all under EPA 1986. The Basel Convention (1989) regulates international movement of hazardous waste; India is a party.

✅ Answer: A) Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum vs Union of India (1996)The Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum case (1996) was a landmark case involving pollution from tanneries in Tamil Nadu. The Supreme Court incorporated the Doctrine of Sustainable Development, Precautionary Principle, and Polluter Pays Principle into Indian environmental law. The court ordered the tanneries to pay compensation and set up a Green Bench. This case established that economic development and environmental protection must go hand in hand — neither can be sacrificed for the other.