PSC Chronicles Team

• Sarai Nahar Rai is located in Pratapgarh district, Uttar Pradesh. • It is a famous Mesolithic site known for human skeletal remains and burials. • Evidence of grave goods like microliths and animal bones alongside burials. • Other similar UP Mesolithic sites: Mahadaha (Pratapgarh) and Damdama (Pratapgarh). • Source: Upinder Singh – Ancient India; NCERT references.

• Sanganakallu (also called Kupgal) is in Bellary district, Karnataka. • It is known for Neolithic period petroglyph rock art (carvings on rock) and massive ground stone axes. • It was a major manufacturing site for polished Neolithic stone axes. • The rock art depicts cattle, humans, and abstract motifs. • Source: Ravi Korisettar’s research; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• F.R. Allchin (Raymond Allchin) extensively studied South Indian Neolithic ash mound sites. • F.R. Allchin wrote ‘Neolithic Cattle-Keepers of South India’ — a seminal work on Piklihal. • His research showed ash mounds resulted from seasonal burning of cattle enclosures. • H.D. Sankalia is the Father of Indian Prehistoric Archaeology (different specialization area). • Source: F.R. Allchin – Neolithic Cattle-Keepers of South India; UPSC references.

• Ahar is located in Udaipur district, Rajasthan. • It is one of the earliest Chalcolithic settlements of India (c. 2800 BCE). • Archaeological finds include black-and-red ware pottery, copper artifacts, and evidence of rice cultivation. • The Ahar culture is also known as Banas culture after the Banas River. • Source: NCERT; ASI Reports; Upinder Singh.

• Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu has provided evidence of Acheulian (Lower Palaeolithic) tools dating back ~1.5 million years. • Recent research (2018) suggests early Stone Age tools here predate the arrival of Homo sapiens. • It is located along the Kortallayar River in Chennai district. • This makes it one of the oldest prehistoric sites in South Asia. • Source: Nature Journal 2018; UPSC Reference Books.

• Acheulian culture is named after Saint-Acheul in France. • Hand axes (bifacially worked tools) and cleavers are its defining tools. • In India, Acheulian sites are found in Hunsgi, Attirampakkam, Bhimbetka, and Nevasa. • Soanian culture is associated with pebble tools in the Sivalik region of NW India. • Source: NCERT; Romila Thapar – ‘Early India’.

• Robert Bruce Foote, a British geologist, discovered the first Palaeolithic hand axe in India at Pallavaram, near Chennai (then Madras), in 1863. • This discovery established the antiquity of human presence in India. • Foote is considered the pioneer of Indian prehistoric studies. • He later wrote ‘The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities’. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• V. Gordon Childe (Australian archaeologist) coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’ in the 1920s. • He used it to describe the shift from hunting-gathering to farming and settled life. • Similarly, he coined ‘Urban Revolution’ for the rise of cities (like Indus Valley Civilization). • H.D. Sankalia is the ‘Father of Indian Prehistoric Archaeology’. • Source: NCERT; General reference in Prehistoric Archaeology.

• Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture dates to c. 1100-600 BCE in the Gangetic plains and NW India. • It is associated with the Later Vedic period and early Iron Age. • Sites: Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Atranjikhera. • It bridges the Chalcolithic and Early Historic (6th century BCE) periods. • Source: NCERT Class XII – Themes in Indian History; B.B. Lal’s research.

• Burzahom is located near Srinagar in the Kashmir Valley (J&K). • It is known for pit-dwellings (underground houses) used in the Neolithic period. • Unique features: harpooning tools, hunting scenes, and burial of dogs with humans. • Dates to around 2375 BCE. • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; ASI Reports.

• Bhimbetka is located in the Vindhya Hills of Madhya Pradesh, near Bhopal. • It was discovered by Dr. V.S. Wakankar in 1957-58. • It contains over 700 rock shelters with cave paintings dating from Palaeolithic to Medieval times. • It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; Archaeological Survey of India.

• Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): ~2 million – 10,000 BCE — rough stone tools. • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): ~10,000 – 6,000 BCE — microlithic tools. • Neolithic (New Stone Age): ~6,000 – 1,000 BCE — polished stone tools + agriculture. • This sequence is universal across the world’s prehistory. • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; NIOS History Module 1.

• Inamgaon is located on the Bhima River in Pune district, Maharashtra. • It is the most extensively excavated Chalcolithic site in India. • It belongs to the Jorwe culture (c. 1300-700 BCE). • Evidence of irrigation, wheat/barley cultivation, craft specialization, and burials found. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India.

• Chirand is located in Saran district, Bihar, on the banks of the Ghaghara River. • It is an important Neolithic-Chalcolithic site in the Gangetic plains. • Evidence of bone tools, pottery, and animal bones found here. • It shows cultural continuity from Neolithic to early historic period. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India.

• Ash mounds are large mounds of burnt cattle dung found only in South Indian Neolithic sites. • They suggest that people seasonally camped at these sites and burned cattle enclosures. • These are unique to peninsular India and not found in North Indian Neolithic sites. • Sites with ash mounds: Utnur (Telangana), Piklihal, Kodekal, Watgal (Karnataka). • Source: F.R. Allchin’s research; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Terracotta (baked clay) figurines appear prominently in the Neolithic Age. • Evidence found at Mehrgarh (c. 7000 BCE) — earliest terracotta figurines of women and animals. • They suggest early religious/ritual practices and artistic expression. • The tradition continued and became elaborate in the Chalcolithic and Harappan periods. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• ‘Palaeo’ means Old and ‘Lithos’ means Stone in Greek. • Hence, Palaeolithic = Old Stone Age. • Similarly, ‘Neo’ means New — Neolithic = New Stone Age. • ‘Meso’ means Middle — Mesolithic = Middle Stone Age. • Source: NCERT Class XI History – Themes in World History.

• The shift from food gathering/hunting to food production (farming + herding) is the defining feature of the Neolithic Revolution. • This transition occurred at the Mesolithic to Neolithic boundary (c. 10,000-6,000 BCE in the subcontinent). • V. Gordon Childe termed this the ‘Neolithic Revolution’. • This led to settled village life, surplus food, and social stratification. • Source: NCERT Class VI; NIOS History Module 1.

• Jorwe culture is associated with the northern Deccan (Maharashtra). • Dates to approximately 1400-700 BCE. • Key sites: Jorwe, Inamgaon, Daimabad, Chandoli. • Known for Jorwe ware (ochre-colored, painted pottery). • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India.

• Indian Chalcolithic cultures broadly flourished between 3000-1000 BCE. • Ahar culture: c. 2800-1500 BCE; Malwa culture: c. 1700-1400 BCE; Jorwe culture: c. 1400-700 BCE. • The Chalcolithic period overlaps with and post-dates the mature Harappan civilization. • This phase saw the spread of copper technology and farming villages. • Source: NCERT Class VI; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture is found in the Gangetic plains (UP, Rajasthan). • It is associated with the Copper Hoards — large caches of copper weapons and tools. • Dates to approximately 2000-1500 BCE. • Key sites: Bisauli, Rajpur Parasu, Saipai (UP). • Source: NCERT Class XII – Themes in Indian History I; Upinder Singh.

• Koldihwa is located in Allahabad (Prayagraj) district, UP. • It has provided evidence of rice cultivation dating back to c. 6500-6000 BCE. • Some scholars claim this makes it one of the earliest rice-growing sites in the world. • It is a Neolithic site with evidence of circular huts and animal bones. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India; Bridget Allchin’s research.

• Burzahom (Kashmir) Neolithic people lived in pit-dwellings — houses dug into the ground. • This was likely adapted to the cold climate of Kashmir. • These pit dwellings were later replaced by above-ground structures. • Burial of dogs alongside humans is another unique feature of Burzahom. • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; ASI Reports.

• Chalcolithic = Chalco (Copper) + Lithos (Stone). • It is the transition phase between Stone Age and Bronze/Iron Age. • People used both stone tools AND copper tools. • This marks the first evidence of metal use in India. • Source: NCERT Class VI; NIOS History.

• Daimabad in Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, yielded famous bronze sculptures. • These include a chariot with driver, elephant, rhinoceros, and buffalo — all in bronze. • These are among the finest bronze works of the Chalcolithic period in India. • Daimabad also shows Late Harappan cultural links. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India; ASI Reports.

• Ahar Culture (also called Banas Culture) is one of the oldest Chalcolithic cultures of India. • Dates to approximately 2800-1500 BCE in southeast Rajasthan (Ahar, Gilund). • Known for copper smelting, black-and-red pottery, and rice cultivation. • Predates Malwa and Jorwe cultures. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Navdatoli is located on the south bank of the Narmada River in Nimad district, Madhya Pradesh. • It belongs to the Malwa Chalcolithic culture. • Excavated by H.D. Sankalia in 1950s. • Evidence of wheat, lentils, peas, and rice cultivation along with copper tools and painted pottery. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Langhnaj is located in Mehsana district, Gujarat. • It is one of the important Mesolithic sites in western India. • Finds include microlithic tools, animal bones (cattle, deer, pig), and human burials. • The burials show use of ochre, suggesting ritual practices. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Maski is located in Raichur district, Karnataka. • It is an important Neolithic site in peninsular India. • Maski is also famous for being the first site where an Ashokan minor rock edict mentioning ‘Asoka’ by name was discovered (though that belongs to a later historic period). • The Neolithic occupation at Maski dates to approximately 2000-1000 BCE. • Source: NCERT; ASI Reports.

• Microliths are tiny, geometric-shaped blades/tools made of stone. • They are the hallmark of the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) period. • Microliths were used as arrowheads, spearheads, and sickle blades. • Important Mesolithic sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP), Langhnaj (Gujarat). • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; UPSC NCERT History.

• Red ochre (iron oxide, hematite) was the most commonly used pigment. • White limestone (kaolin) and white clay were also used. • Green and yellow pigments were occasionally used in later periods. • These pigments were mixed with animal fat, plant sap, or water. • Source: NCERT Class XI – An Introduction to Indian Art; Bhimbetka research.

• Mehrgarh (in present-day Balochistan, Pakistan) is the largest and oldest known Neolithic settlement in South Asia. • It dates back to ~7000 BCE. • It shows evidence of agriculture (wheat, barley), animal domestication, and pottery. • Although now in Pakistan, it is part of the Indian subcontinent’s prehistoric heritage studied in Indian history syllabi. • Source: NCERT; Romila Thapar – Early India.

• Bagor on the Kothari River in Rajasthan is one of the largest Mesolithic sites in India. • It is known for its microlithic tools and evidence of transition to food production. • It also shows evidence of cattle domestication alongside hunting-gathering. • Excavations here revealed burials with grave goods. • Source: NCERT; Indian Archaeology – A Review.

• Agriculture (cultivation of crops) began during the Neolithic Age. • Early crops: wheat, barley, rice. • Mehrgarh (c. 7000 BCE) shows earliest evidence of farming in the subcontinent. • Southern Neolithic sites like Piklihal and Utnur show evidence of cattle herding alongside agriculture. • Source: NCERT Class VI – Our Pasts I; NIOS History.

• Piklihal is an important Neolithic site in Raichur district, Karnataka. • It is known for evidence of sheep/goat herding and ash mounds. • Ash mounds (burnt cattle dung) are a unique feature of South Indian Neolithic culture. • Other South Indian Neolithic sites: Brahmagiri, Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota. • Source: NCERT; F.R. Allchin – Neolithic Cattle-Keepers of South India.

• H.D. Sankalia (Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia) is called the Father of Indian Prehistoric Archaeology. • He conducted excavations at Nevasa, Navdatoli, Langhnaj, and other sites. • Robert Bruce Foote discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India (at Pallavaram, 1863). • V.S. Wakankar discovered Bhimbetka rock shelters. • Source: NCERT Reference; Standard UPSC History books.

• Adamgarh is located in Hoshangabad (now Narmadapuram) district, Madhya Pradesh. • It is an important Mesolithic site known for rock shelters with paintings. • Evidence of early animal domestication (cattle, sheep) found here. • Considered one of the earliest sites of animal domestication in South Asia. • Source: NCERT; Indian Archaeology – A Review.

• The Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) is the earliest phase of human prehistory in India. • It dates roughly from 2 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. • Humans during this age used rough, unpolished stone tools. • Evidence found at sites like Bhimbetka (MP), Hunsgi (Karnataka), and Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu). • Source: NCERT Class XI; NIOS History.

• Neolithic (New Stone Age) is characterized by ground and polished stone tools. • Unlike the chipped/flaked tools of earlier periods, Neolithic tools were smoother and more efficient. • Other Neolithic features: agriculture, animal domestication, pottery, settled villages. • This marks the beginning of the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ or Agricultural Revolution. • Source: NCERT Class VI; NIOS History Module 1.

• Burial practices became prominent during the Mesolithic period. • Skeletons with grave goods (shells, ochre) have been found at Mesolithic sites like Sarai Nahar Rai (UP) and Mahadaha (UP). • This suggests belief in afterlife and social organization. • Neolithic burials became more elaborate (e.g., Burzahom dog burials). • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Polished stone tools are characteristic of the NEOLITHIC Age, not Mesolithic. • Mesolithic features: Microliths, semi-nomadic lifestyle, hunting-gathering, early domestication. • Rock paintings like those at Bhimbetka belong largely to the Mesolithic period. • The bow and arrow was an important weapon introduced in the Mesolithic Age. • Source: NCERT Class VI; NIOS History.

• Soanian culture is named after the Soan River in present-day Pakistan/NW India. • It is found in the Sivalik Hills region (Punjab, Himachal Pradesh foothills). • It used chopper-chopping tools made from pebbles — different from Acheulian hand axes. • It represents a distinct regional tradition of the Lower Palaeolithic. • Source: NCERT Class XI; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Hunsgi Valley in Kalaburagi district, Karnataka, is rich in Acheulian (Lower Palaeolithic) tools. • It is one of the most significant open-air Palaeolithic sites in peninsular India. • Hand axes and cleavers are the most common tools found here. • Excavations were led by S.N. Rajaguru and K. Paddayya. • Source: NCERT; Indian Archaeology – A Review.

• Daojali Hading is a Neolithic site in Dima Hasao district, Assam (Northeast India). • It has yielded polished stone tools, cord-impressed pottery, and evidence of early farming. • Other NE Neolithic sites: Sarutaru (Assam). • The NE Indian Neolithic tradition is distinct from peninsular and NW Indian traditions. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• The Malwa culture is named after the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh. • Dates to approximately 1700-1400 BCE. • Key sites: Navdatoli, Eran, Nagda. • Known for Malwa pottery (thick, coarse, painted ware) and copper tools. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – Ancient India.

• Kayatha culture is one of the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of the Malwa plateau, MP. • The type-site is Kayatha village near Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh. • Dates to approximately 2000-1800 BCE. • Known for its distinctive painted pottery (red-slipped with chocolate-brown designs). • Source: Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India; UPSC references.

• Inamgaon (Pune district, Maharashtra) is the most extensively excavated Chalcolithic site. • It shows a township plan with a chief’s house, storage facilities, and craft workshops. • Evidence of irrigation channels, barley/wheat cultivation, and specialized crafts. • Belongs to Jorwe culture; shows social stratification through differential burial patterns. • Source: NCERT; Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India.

• Lower Palaeolithic: Chopper-chopping tools, hand axes, cleavers (Acheulian culture). • Middle Palaeolithic: Flake tools, scrapers — more refined. • Upper Palaeolithic: Blades, burins, points — very refined tools. • This three-phase classification is standard in Indian prehistory. • Source: NCERT Class XI; Upinder Singh – ‘A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India’.

• Utnur is located in Adilabad district, Telangana. • It is a significant South Indian Neolithic site known for cattle pens and ash mounds. • The ash mounds indicate seasonal burning of cattle dung. • Utnur was excavated by F.R. Allchin in the 1950s. • Source: F.R. Allchin – Neolithic Cattle-Keepers of South India; NCERT.

• Bhimbetka has paintings spanning multiple periods, but the bulk belong to Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. • Themes include animals (bison, deer, elephants), hunting scenes, and dancing figures. • The paintings were made using natural pigments — red ochre and white limestone. • Some later paintings also belong to Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and early historic periods. • Source: NCERT Class XI – An Introduction to Indian Art.

• Polished stone tools belong to the NEOLITHIC Age, not Mesolithic. • Mesolithic tools (microliths) were tiny, chipped/flaked — NOT polished. • The bow and arrow DID appear in the Mesolithic period. • Semi-nomadic lifestyle (moving seasonally) is indeed a Mesolithic characteristic. • Source: NCERT Class VI; NIOS History.